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Geography 

r 

(■/ 

1 The Facts Condensed 

Revised Edition 

1920 

BT \ ■] j 

A. S. LEE 

ii'- ■ 

AUTHOB OF 

r CONDENSED SERIES OF 

TEXT BOOKS FOR TEACHERS 







“GEOGRAPHY 


Geography is the study of the earth in its relation to 
man and life. 

The values of geography are both practical and cul- 
tural. 

Practical Yalues. (1) It teaches place relations 
which aid in thinking and in finding one’s way about the 
community, in talking, in reading, in sending letters and 
packages, and in business. 

(2) Geography is essential to the exporter, the im- 
porter and the manufacturer that each may know where 
needed goods may be obtained, where there is a demand 
for their wares, and the cheapest and best routes of trans- 
portation. 

(3) Geography teaches us about our own country — 
its possibilities and limitations, and, thereby, enables the 
individual to make better adjustments as to environments. 
It teaches the interdependence of the various sections of 
our country upon each other and aids in dividing our 
occupations on a geographical basis. 

(4) Geography enables the student in after-school 
days to use maps, charts, and graphs intelligently. 

Cultural aims. (1) Geography broadens our sympath- 
ies, provides mental pleasure, develops patriotism and 
ar’Is mental strength, refinement and growth of character, 


— 2 — 


(2) It aids in a proper appreciation of current events, 
history and literature; it contributes materially to the en- 
joyment of nature and natural forces; it enables us to 
read books of travel and adventure with pleasure and pro- 
fit; it acquaints us with the habits, environments, and 
life of people in foreign countries; it teaches us “how the 
)ther half lives.” 


LATEST DirROVEMElSTS IX THE TEACHING OF 
GEOGRAPHY 


I. The introduction of home geography. 

II. The elimination of much of the memorizing of 
names and the substitution of much descriptive matter. 

III. The laying of emphasis upon cause and effect. 

IV. The exercise of reason instead of memory. 

Home Geography is a study of the social conditions 
of the home and community together with the surface 
features of the vicinity, the climate, natural resources, 
occupations, historic associations, and transportation. The 
scope of home geography varies with the locality. Home 
geography connects with and includes the nature study 
of the previous grades; builds up a vocabulary for the 
study of world geography and by induction leads the child 
from the known to the related unknown. No textbook is 
needed. 

Descriptive geography is now made prominent. In 
the place of the long lists of questions with little or no 
sequence or relation, the modern geography teacher uses 
descriptive matter and readings containing valuable and 
interesting information. Individual assignments in sup- 

§)CLA566025 


— 3 — 


I plementary text-books are made. Geographical readers 
i are read with interest and profit and geographical librar- 
ies are being provided. 

Cause and effect, “Why” geography is made more 
I prominent than “where” geography. The products, ex- 
i ports, and imports of each country are not memorized but 
!the fact that countries in the same physical zones should 
;have nearly the same products, is taught, because it is 
simpler and appeals to reason. The facts of geography 
jare now gathered in clusters like grapes and not singly.. 
The modern teacher is more concerned in why sugar-cane 
and cotton grow in Louisiana, than in the isolated fact 
that they are grov/n there. It is more interesting and im- 
portant to teach why Pittsburg has grown to be a large 
city than to teach that it is a large city of 551,000 popu- 
lation. The new plan teaches how linen is produced and 
why it is produced in Ireland and Belgium rather than 
the fact of its production in these countries. 

The reason is exercised rather than the memory in 
the teaching of geography because memorizing is not 
'learning and because we soon forget the things that do 
|ot appeal to our reason. This notion has introduced the 
I geographical problem” and the “socialized recitation” in 
the teaching of geography. Geographical influences on 
•ociety and on history are being traced. The features 
tod forces of man’s environment are studied in relation 
to his life. 

It is an interesting exercise to trace the rubber in an 
automobile tire to the rubber trees of Brazil, or the cof- 
fee we drink from the slopes of eastern Brazil to the 
^ffee cup, or the wool in our clothing to Australia, op of 
any article we use from its native haunts to our homes. 


— 4 — 


Iiiterestiiiff problems; (1) AMiy did the largest city 
in the Western Hemisphere grow up at the mouth of the 
Hudson? (2) Why are there more large cities in New 
York and New England than in any other section of our 
country? (3) How many and what persons were engaged 
in providing for our breakfast?, (4) Why is the climate 
milder in Paris than Winnipeg? (5) Why was sugar sell- 
ing at $60 a ton in Java in 1918, and wheat in Australia 
at 75c a bu.? (6) Why do they observe Christmas day in 
the summer season in Argentina? (7) Why are great 
crops raised in th elower Nile valley? (8) Why is there 
such a great variety of climate in Mexico? (9) Account 
for the wet and dry seasons in Cuba. (10) Compare the 
latitude and climate of Great Britain and Labrador. (11) 
Why is New England a great manufacturing center when 
raw material and fuel are so far away? (12) What do 
the isotherms of England indicate? (13) Why is rain- 
fall abundant in the belt of calms? (14) Why is a June 
day longer in Cleveland than in New Orleans? (15) What 
things affect the price of a manufactured article? (16) 
What results have followed the invention of the refrig- 
erator car? (17) A and B start at the same point on the 
parallel of 40 degrees north latitude; A travels due north 
10 degrees, then east 10 degrees. B travels due east 10 de- 
grees then due north 10 degrees. Which traveled farther? 
Why? (18) do they use closed vessels for cooking in 

Quito? (19) Why is there so little rain in western Kansas 
and Nebraska? (20) Show how the geography of the United 
States has caused a division of occupations. (21) Describe 
a modern passenger steamship and what it carries. (22) 
Why are the people of China not progressive? YTiat so- 
cial reforms do they need? (23) What remedies would you 
offer to make Russia the great nation she should be? (24) 
Account for the rapid progress the Japanese people have 
made in the last half century. Mention two of their great- 


— 5 — 


est needs. (25) The great nations of the world are in the 
temperate zone. Why is this so? (2G) Locate the irrigated 
regions of India. What geographical conditions make ir- 
rigation in these regions profitable? (27) What should be 
done with the German portions of Africa? (28) Why does 
England wish to retain control of India? 


A TYPE LESSON 
Brazil 


1. Comparative area and population. 

2. The inhabitants. Progress in civilization. 

3. Government and Society. 

4. Heat Belts. Rain. 

5. Surface and Drainage. 

6. Leading Products. 

7. What they have to sell and where they sell it. 

8. What they buy from other countries and where 
they buy it. 

9. Transportation facilities. 

10. Diversity of Industries. 

11. Leading Ports. What made them great ports? 

12. Why no large cities along the Amazon valley? 

13. Historical Associations. 

14. In what part of Brazil would you rather live? 
Why? 

Individual Assignments 

(a) Tell how the coffee crop is cultivated and mar- 
£eted. 

(b) Tell how the rubber product is collected, pre- 

(c) Describe the cable lines and steamship lines. 
)ared, and transported to the coast for shipment. 

r Note. With sliRht modification to suit special and local conditiona, this 
mtline may he used in teaching the geography of any country. 


UNITED STATES 




Key West is but little north of the Tropic of Cancer, 
while the 49th parallel north forms the northern boundary 
of the U. S., thus giving the country a wide range of , 
climate for the growth of all useful plants. 

riiysical Regions: Coastal Plain, Appalachian High- 
lands, Mississippi Valley, and the Pacific Highlands. 

Rortler States — Maine, N. H., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y., 
N. J., Del., Md., Va., N. C., S. C., G. and Florida touch the At- 
lantic Ocean. Fla., Ala., Miss., La., and Texas touch the 
Gulf of 3rexico. Cal., Ore., and Wash., touch the Pacific 
Ocean. Wash., Idaho, Montana, N. D., Minn., Wis., Mich., 
Ohio, Pa., N. Y., Vt., N. H., and Maine touch Canada; Minn., 
Wis., Mich., 111., Ind., Ohio, Pa., and N. Y. touch the Great 
Lakes. Part of Minn., Wis., 111., Ky., Tenn., Miss., and 
part of La., touch the east sliore of the Tdississippi. Part 
of La., Ark., Mo., Iowa, and part of Minn., touch the west 
shore of the Miss. Mo. and Tenn. are each bounded by 
eight states. 

Texas (area 266,000), California (158,000) and Montanaj 
(146,000), are the largest three states; -while Rhode Island 
(1,248), Dela-ware (2,370), and Connecticut (4,965), are 
the smallest states. 

Atlantic Ports — Portland, Boston, New York, Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore, and Charleston are Atlantic ports. They 
owe their growth largely to their convenient harbors and 
to their accessibility to other industrial regions. 

Mobile and Galveston are prominent Gulf ports, the 
latter rivaling New Orleans as a cotton market. . 

Pacific Ports — Los Angeles is noted for its healthful! 
climate. The region about the city was a desert untifl 


• 7 — 


irrigation made it a great fruit center. San Francisco, 
the largest city on the Pacific Coast, is the port through 
which the products of central California reach the ocean. 
The harbor is commodious and convenient. The entrance 
to this harbor is called The Golden Gate. Seattle and 
Tacoma are growing cities on Puget Sound; each has 
large coal, lumber, fishing, and shipping interests. 

Lake Ports — Duluth, Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, 
Cleveland, and Buffalo. The first four owe their rapid 
growth to their good harbors and to their accessibility to 
the great wheat, cattle, coal, and iron ore regions. Cleve- 
land and Buffalo owe their substantial growth to their 
convenience as distributing points and to their close prox- 
imity to coal, iron, oil and gas. The Erie Canal has been 
a potent force in the growth of Buffalo. 

River Ports — New Orleans, St. Louis, Minneapolis, St. 
Paul, Kansas City, Portland (Oregon), Louisville, Cincin- 
nati and Pittsburg. New Orleans is conveniently located 
for the cotton trade; St. Louis and Kansas City, for the 
live stock and leather interests. Minneapolis and St. Paul 
have water power and are conveniently located for the 
grain and milling interests. Minneapolis is at the Falls 
of St. Anthony, ten miles below St. Paul. The mills of one 
firm in Minneapolis has a daily output of 40,000 bbls. of 
flour. Portland has a good harbor and is the center of the 
Ashing and packing interests. ' Louisville is the greatest 
tobacco market in the world. Cincinnati is a great meat, 
grain, and tobacco market. Pittsburg, the Birmingham 
of America, leads the world in the manufacture of iron 
and steel products. It is at the head of navigation of the 
Ohio, and in the center of the coal, iron, and gas region; 
l^all of these natural advantages have contributed to the 
growth of Pittsburg. All of these cities have excellent 
transportation facilities. 


TEGETABLE 


Cotton — Texas, Georgia, Alabama, Miss., South Caro- 
lina, and Oklahoma. 

Corn — 111., Iowa, Mo., Texas, Indiana, Kansas, and 
Ohio. 

Wheat — Minn., Kan., South Dakota, Ind., North Da- 
kota, Nebraska, and Ohio. 

Dairy Products — New York, Wisconsin, Illinois, Michi- 
gan, Iowa and Ohio. 

Potatoes, Cabbage, Onions — New York, Michigan, Ohio, 
and Wisconsin. 

Cane Sugar — Louisiana and Texas. 

Beet Sugar — Colorado, Nebraska, Kansas, Wisconsin. 

Apples — New York, Missouri, Ohio, Michigan. 

Peaches — California, West Va., Georgia, New York and 
New Jersey. 

Oranges — Florida and California. 

Tobacco — Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, and 
Ohio. 

Broom Com — Illinois, Nebraska and Minnesota. 

Grapes — New York, Ohio, California. 

Flaxseed — South Dakota and Minnesota. 

Peanuts — Virginia and Tennessee. 

Bice — Texas, Mississippi, and South Carolina. 

Cranberries — New Jersey and Massachusetts. 

Hemp — South Dakota and Kentucky. 


— 9 — 


Hops — New York and Oregon. 

Sweet Potatoes — New Jersey and Georgia. 

Hay — New York, Pa., Ohio, Mich., 111., and Iowa. 

Oats — Ohio, Michigan, New York and Illinois. 

Lumber — Washington, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oregon, 
Wisconsin, and Georgia. 



ANDIAL PRODUCTS 


Cattle — Texas, Iowa, New York, Kansas, Neb., and Mo. 

Sheep and Wool — Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Ohio, 
Oregon, New Mexico. 

Salmon and Halibut — Oregon, Washington and Alaska. 

Seals — Pribiloff Islands, Alaska. 

• Hogs — ^lowa, Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, and 
Indiana. 

Ostrich Feathers — Arizona and California. 

Fish — Rhode Island, Maine, Mass., and Ohio. 

Oysters — Maryland, Washington, and Conn. 

Dairy Products — New York, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minne- 
sota, Pennsylvania, and Illinois. 

Poultry and Eggs — Missouri, New York, Mass., Ohio, 
West Va., 111., and Georgia. 

Horses and Mules — Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, 
Nebraska, and Ohio. 


— ID- 


MINERAL PRODUCTS 

Iron Ore — Minnesota, Michigan, New York, Wis., Va., 
N. J. 

Copper — Montana, Mich., Arizona. 

Granite and Marble — Vermont and Georgia. 

Oil and Gas — Texas, Oklahoma, Calif., Penn., West Va. 
Kansas, Louisiana. 

Gold — Colorado, Calif., Nev., Alaska, S. D., Utah. 

Silver — Nevada, Montana, Utah, Colorado, Idaho. 

Pottery — New Jersey and Ohio. 

Salt — New York and Michigan. 

Slate — Maine, Penn., and Vermont. 

Coal — Penn., West Va., Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, Ala- 
bama. 

# 

Coke — Pennsylvania and West Virginia. 

Gypsum — Ohio and New York. 

Portland Cement — New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New 
York. 

Lead — Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Missouri, Kansas. 

Building Stone — Pennsylvania, New York, and Ver- 
mont. 

Pig-iron — Pa., Ohio, 111., Ala., New York, and Va. 


— 11 — 


MISCELLANEOUS 


Iron Manufacturing — Pennsylvania, $225,000,000; New 
York, $160,000,000; Ohio, $150,000,000; Illinois, $88,000, ooo; 
Mass., $70,000,000; Conn., $66,000,000. 

Wealthiest States — New York, $15,000,000,000; Penn- 
sylvania, $12,000,000,000; Illinois, $9,000, 000,00o; Ohio, $6,- 
000,000,000; Massachusetts, $5,000,000,00o; California, $4,- 

300.000. 000. 

Leading Manufacturing States — New York, $3,400,000, 
000; Pennsylvania, $2,“/ 00,000,000; Illinois, $2,000,000,ooo; 
Massachusetts, $1,600,000,000; Ohio, $1,500,000,000; New 
Jersey, $1,200,000,000 (yearly.) 

3Iost Populous States — New York, 9,500,000; Penn- 
sylvania, 8,000,000; Illinois, 6,000,000; Ohio, 5,000,00o; Tex- 
as, 4,000,000; Massachusetts. 3,500,000. 

The united States and other countries of the world 
compared as to the production of important articles, with 
1 allies and amounts of yearly products. 

Cotton — United States, 12,000,000 bales; India, 3,000, 
000; Egypt, 1,600,000; Russia, 1,000,000. 

IVheat — United States, 900,000,000 bushels; Russia, 

700.000. 000; India, 360,000,000; France, 250,0oo,ooo; Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 230,000,000. 

Cane Sugar — India, 2,100,000 tons; Cuba, 2,000,000; 
United States, 1,300,000; Java, 1,200,000. 

Coffee — Brazil, 1,500,000,000 pounds; West Indies, 100,- 
000,000; Venezuela, 95,000,000; Guatemala, 90,000,0oo. 

Raw Silk. — Japan, 20,000,000 pounds; China, 14,000,- 
000; Italy, 9,000,000; Austria, 700,000; France, 700,0oo. 


— 12 — 


>>'001 — Australia, 850,000,000 pounds; Argentina, 425,- 
000,000; United States, 350,000,000; Turkish Empire, 300, 
000,000; Russia, 215,000,000; Great Britain, 140,000,ooo. 

Cattle — India, United States, Argentina, Brazil and 
Russia. 

Coal — ^United States, 500,000,000 tons; Great Britain, 
300,000,000; Germany, 200,000,000; Austria-Hungary, 55, 
000,000; France, 50,000,000. 

Gold — Africa, $180,000,000; United States, $100,000,- 
000; Australia $70,000,000; Russia, $40,000,000; Mexico, 
$25,000,000. 

Pig-iron — United States, 27,000,000 tons; Germany 12,- 
000,000; Great Britain, 10,000,000; France, 4,000,0oo; Rus- 
sia, 3,000,000. 

Silver — Mexico, United States, Canada, Australia, 
Peru. 

3raniifacturing — United States 13 billion dollars; 
Great Britain 5, Germany 4.5; France, 3.5. 

Railroads — United States, 240,000 miles; Russia, 46,- 
000; Germany, 35,000; India 33,000; France, 32,000. 

Merchant 3Iarine — ^United States, Great Britain, Ger- 
many, Norway, France, Italy, Holland. 

India Rubber — Brazil, Congo Valley, India, Mexico, 
Venezuela, Central America. 

Petroleum — ^United States, Russia, Mexico, India. 

Potatoes — Germany, France, United Kingdom, India, 
United States. 

The foreign commerce of the United States is carried 
on mostly with Great Britain, Germany, Canada, France, 
Cuba, The Netherlands, Brazil, Mexico and Japan, in the 
order named. , 


—13 


We sell them food supplies, raw materials, farm im- 
plements, and iron products. We buy cloth, cutlery, toys, 
chinaware, silk, drugs, rice, tea, matting, rubber, coffee, 
spices and sugar. 

THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES are New York, 
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, 
1 and West Virginia. No other region of the world is so rich 
in natural resources — coal, oil, gas, iron ore, salt, timber, 
! clay for pottery, building stone, limestone, good harbors, 
good water power, and waterways. This is one of the 
greatest mining, manufacturing, agricultural, and com- 
mercial regions of the world. 

More than half of the soft coal mined in the United 
States comes from this region while nearly all the hard 
coal comes from the regions around Wilkes-Barre and 
Scranton, Pennsylvania. 

A greater diversity of manufacturing and of indus- 
tries in general, are found here than in any other section 
of our country. New York City is the greatest commer- 
cial and financial center of the world. 

NEW ENGLAND is by nature well fitted for manufac- 
turing. The soil is not fertile, and the climate, naturally 
cold, is made colder by the Labrador current so that farm- 
ing is not profitable. The sinking of the coast has made 
many good harbors; the rivers furnish an abundance of 
waterpower, and transportation facilities. There are 400 
cotton mills in New England, many woolen mills, many 
great shoe factories — in fact all kinds of clothing material 
are manufactured in great quantities. Besides manufac- 
turing, lumbering, fishing and the quarrying of granite, 
are important industries. More watches, clocks, jewelry, 
and firearms are manufactured in New England than in 
all the rest of the U. S. combined. The port of Boston 


— 14 — 


is next in importance after New York. At Lowell, Law- 
rence, Biddeford, Manchester and Portsmouth large quan- 
tities of cotton cloth are manufactured. 

College Towns — Harvard University is located at 
Cambridge, Mass., Yale, at New Haven, Conn.; Columbia, 
at New York City; Brown’s at Providence, R. I.; William 
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.; Cornell, at Ithaca, N. Y.; 
Chicago at Chicago; Princeton, at Princeton, N. J. 

FOREIGN POSSESSIONS OF THE U. S.— (1) The Phil- 
ippine Islands are in the North Torrid Zone and the pro- 
ducts are those peculiar to that zone. Hemp and tobacco 
are the leading exports. Luzon, on which Manilla the capi- 
tal is situated, is the largest and most important island, 
while Mindanao is nearly as large. The islands are rich in 
minerals but are undeveloped. (2) The Hawaiian Islands 
are about 20 degrees north latitude but have a delightful 
climate. Pearl Harbor is one of the best on the globe. 
Sugar, coffee, and tropical fruits are raised in great quan- 
tities. The inhabitants are industrious and intelligent. 
(3) Alaska (700,000 square miles) is in the far north and 
is rich in natural resources among which are gold, coal, 
copper, timber, soils and salmon. Sitka is the best known 
city, but Jnnean is the capital. (4) Guam, Wake Island 
and Tutiiila are coaling stations. (5) Porto Rico produces 
sugar and tobacco; (6) Virgin Islands. 


VOYAGES 

A vessel going from Duluth to Liverpool would pass 
over Lake Superior, “Soo” Canal, Lake Huron, St. Clair 
River, St. Clair Lake, Detroit River, Lake Erie, Welland 
Canal, Lake Ontario, St. Lawrence River, Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, Atlantic Ocean, St. George’s Channel, and Irish 


— 15 — 


Sea. It would likely carry wheat over and manufactured 
articles back. i 

A vessel going from Petrograd to Odessa would 
pass over the Gulf of Finland, Baltic Sea, The Sound, 
Cattegat, Skaggerrack, North Sea, Str. of Dover, English 
Channel, Atlantic Ocean, east on Str. of Gibraltar, Med- 
iterranean Sea, North on Aegean Sea, Str. Dardanelles, east 
on Sea of Marmora, Str. of Bosporus and north on Black 
Sea to Odessa. It would take manufactured articles and 
bring back flour and food supplies. 

A vessel going from London to Melbourne would pass 
over Thames River, North Sea, Str. of Dover, English 
Channel, Atlantic Ocean, Str. of Gibralter, Meditterranean 
Sea, Suez Canal, Ded Sea, Str. of Babel-Mandeb, Gulf of 
Aden, Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bass Strait. It would 
take manufactured articles and bring back grain and wool. 

Describe a trip by water from Pittsburg to Fort 
Benton, Montana, naming the cities passed. 

Describe a voyage circumnavigating the Island of 
Great Britain. 


WEST TIRGINIA 


Area 24,780 square miles; Population, 1,300,000. The 
80th meridian west and the 39th parallel north pass 
through the central part of the state. The climate from 
west to east gets colder on account of altitude and from 
south to north on account of latitude. 

Productions — The river valleys, and hilly region west 
of the mountains are fertile, and grazing and farming are 
carried on with success. In Wetzel, Doddridge, Tyler, 


— 16 — 


Pleasants, Ritchie, Calhoun, Wirt, Wood, Roane and Lin- 
coln counties oil and gas have been found in great quanti- 
ties. In Ritchie, Braxton, Clay, Webster, Pocahontas, Up- 
shur, Nicholas, and Randolph counties much timber is 
found. McDowell, Fayette, Kanawha, Marion, Monongalia, 
Taylor, Mingo, Mason, and Mercer counties are noted for 
the production of coal. The eastern Pan Handle is rich in 
its limestone quarries much of which is being used in 
making cement. Randolph, Taylor, Tyler, Hardy, Berkeley 
Jefferson, and Harrison counties are noted for their fruits. 
Mason, Berkeley, Jefferson and Harrison, produce large 
quantities of wheat and corn. Pocahontas county is in the 
blue grass region which extends from Mercer to Harrison 
county. Grazing and stockraising is here a leading occu- 
pation. 

West Virginia is taking high rank in the production 
of dairy and poultry products. Harrison, Taylor, Poca- 
hontas, Monroe, Greenbrier, Roane, Jackson, Mason and 
Wood counties, market many cattle; these are sold in 
Piitsburgh and Baltimore. 

Drainage — The Mississippi drains five-sixths of the 
state and the Potomac the remaining one-sixth. The 
southern shore of the Potomac forms the boundry between 
'W. Va., and Maryland. The western shore of the Ohio for 
280 miles is the boundary line between W. Va., and Ohio, 
The Guyandotte, Great Kanawha, and Little Kanawha, flow 
northwest into the Ohio. The Monongahela drains the 
north central portion of the state northward into the 
Ohio at Pittsburg. The New River rises in North Carolina 
and, flowing northwest, unites with the Gauley to form 
the Great Kanawha. The Greenbrier flows southeast into 
the New River at Hinton. 

Railroads — The N. & W. passes through the coal fields 
of Mercer, McDowell, Mingo and Wayne counties. Blue- 


17 


field, Welch, Williamson, and Kenova are along this line. 
The C. and 0., comes down the Greenbrier and Great Kan- 
awha Valleys passing Marlinton, Ronceverte, Hinton, 
Charleston, St. Albans and Huntington. The K. and M., 
follows the northern shore of the Great Kanawha and 
connects with the Deepwater lines. The Ohio River di- 
vision of the B. and O. passes through all the counties 
bordering on the Ohio River from Kenova to Wheeling. 
The B, and 0. crosses the northern portion of the state 
from the east. After reaching Grafton, the S. W. division 
passes Clarksburg, West Union and Parkersburg, while 
the main lines leaves the state at Wheeling. The C. and C. 
begins at Charleston and extends by way of Sutton to 
Elkins. There are about 2600 miles of railroad within 
the state. Cities — Huntington in Cabell, Wheeling in Ohio 
county. Charleston in Kanawha, Parkersburg in Wood, 
Bluefield in Mercer, Martinsburg in Berkeley, Fairmont in 
Marion, and Clarksburg in Harrison, are the largest cities 
in the state. Natural Resources — Coal, oil, gas, timber, 
and building stone. 


DOMINION OF CANADA 


The Dominion of Canada though slightly larger than 
the United States, contains but one-twelfth as many in- 
habitants. The coasts are irregular and furnish good har- 
bors. The climate is cold, yet in the south the soil is 
fertile and great crops of wheat, oats, and fruit are pro- 
duced. Stock raising, lumbering and fishing, are import- 
ant industries. The great wheatfields of Manitoba and 
Saskatchewan rival those of Minnesota and the Dakotas, 
while immense herds of sheep and cattle are reared on 
the plains just east of the Rocky Mountains. Calgary is a 


— 18 — 


thriving city of western Canada. Ottawa on the Ottawa 
River is the Capital. Montreal and Quebec on the St. Law- 
rence, are leading cities. Toronto is a manufacturing city. 
Winnipeg manufactures much flour. The provinces with 
their capitals are; Quebec, Quebec; Nova Scotia, Halifax; 
New Brunswick, Fredericton; Prince Edward Islands, Char- 
lottetown; Ontario, Toronto; Manitoba, Winnipeg; British 
Columbia, Victoria; Saskatchewan, Regina; Alberta, Ed- 
monton. It is a confederation of provinces and is self 
governing. The Governor-General is appointed by the ruler 
of England. The legislative department consists of two 
houses, the Senate appointed by the Governor-General, 
and the Commons, elected by the people. The Premier 
is appointed by the Commons. 


, MEXICO 


The Tropic of Cancer crosses near the middle of the 
country, consequently about half of Mexico is in the torrid 
zone and half in the temperate zone. 

The low lands of the east being in the warm heat 
belts have a tropical climate; the slopes west of these 
plains have a moist sub-tropical climate; the interior 
plateau is so high that it has a temperate but dry climate 
suitable for grazing; the very high mountains of the west 
have a cold temperate and frigid climate. 

The area of Mexico is about 707,000 square miles; the 
population consisting of Indians, Indian and Spanish half- 
breeds, and Spaniards, numbers about 16,000,000. 

Spain governed Mexico from the conquest of Cortes 
1519, to 1821 when Mexico by rebellion achieved her in- 
dependence. It was at this time, too, that the South 


— 19 — 


American states won independence from Spain. Monroe 
was president of the United States and these revolutions 
caused him to issue the famous “Monroe Doctrine” which 
made it plain that not only Spain but no other foreign 
power should ever again by any means acquire additional 
territory in the western hemisphere. Since 1821, Mexico 
has been a republic. 

Spain held Mexico long enough to establish her lan- 
guage, religion (Catholic), customs, and institutions all 
of which differ widely from the corresponding conditions 
in the United States. These social differences, together 
with the mixed races, and lawless elements in Mexico, es- 
pecially along the border, have led to many difficulties 
with Mexico and they are not settled yet. 

Mexico is rich in minerals, especially silver, iron ore, 
copper, petroleum, gold, lead, and zinc. The rich oil 
fields of Texas and Louisiana reach into Mexico. Tampico 
on the east coast Is the center of the oil industry. 

Grazing, agriculture and mining are the leading occu- 
pations. Hides, meat, wool, coffee, indigo, dye-woods, and 
hemp are exported. This hemp is produced in Yucatan and 
we depend upon this supply for our binder twine. It is 
one of their leading exports. 

3Iexico City, the capital, has a population of nearly 
500,000. It is on a high plauteau and has a cool dry 
climate. 

Tera Cruz and Tampico on the east coast, are import- 
ant cities. 


LA3fD 3IARKS IS LATITUDE ASJ) LONGITUDE. 


The northern boundary of Vermont is 45 degrees north 
or midway between the equator and the north pole. The 
; southern point of Canada is somewhat south of Detroit or 
42 degrees north. Cairo, Egypt is 30 degrees east and 30 


— 20 — 


degrees north. New Orleans is 30 degrees north and 90 
degrees west. Petrograd is 30 degrees east and 60 de- 
grees north, a little north of Sitka. London 52 degrees 
north has the same latitude as the southern end of Hudson 
Bay. Buenos Ayres is 35 degrees south and 58 degrees 
west. The meridian of Wheeling leaves all of South Amer- 
ica to the east. Honolulu is 158 degrees west and 22 de- 
grees north. Melbourne, Australia is 38 degrees south and 
155 degrees east. Sitka, 57 north, 135 west. The Equator 
crosses Quito, the mouth of the Amazon, Gulf of Guinea, 
Lake Victoria, Summatra, Borneo, and Galapagos Islands. 
The Tropic of Capricorn crosses Rio de Janeiro, Transvaal, 
Madagascar, and the center of Australia. The Tropic of 
Cancer crosses the end of Lower California, Havana, The 
Sahara Desert, Arabia, Muscat, Calcutta, Hongkong, For- 
mosa and two degrees north of Hawaii. The Fortieth Par- 
allel North crosses Cal., Nev., Utah, Colorado, between 
Kan. and Neb., Mo., 111., Ind., Ohio, W. Va., Pa., and N. J. 
Portugal, Spain, Italy, Turkey, Caspian Sea, Bokhara, 
Kashgar, Pekin, Korea and Northern Japan. 


AFRICA 


Africa lies mainly in the torrid zone. Northern and 
southern Africa are in the north and south temperate 
zones, respectively. The coast is exceedingly regular with 
few good harbors. The interior of Africa is a high plau- 
teau which moderates the climate. The divisions of Af- 
rica are (1) The Barbara States (Morrocco, Algiers, Tunis, 
Tripoli), (2) The Sahara, (3) The Sudan (Land of the 
Blacks) which consists largely of grassy plains, (4) South 
Africa which includes the land south of tHe Zambezi. The 
valley of the Kongo reecives an abundance of rain and 


— 21 — 


rivals the Amazon Valley in the density of its vegetation. 
Much india rubber is obtained in this valley. South Africa 
is noted for its grazing and mining interests. The richest 
diamond and gold fields in the world are here. Pearl and 
ivory are among the leading exports of the Sudan. Egypt 
is a large country but the narrow valley of the Nile is the 
only part inhabitable. But little rain falls here. The 
monsoons of the Indian Ocean bring rains to the highlands 
of central and eastern Africa, which fiood the Nile valley 
yearly from June to October. Large quantities of cotton, 
wheat, and rice, are exported. England controls souther^n 
Africa. This being in the temperate one is a fairly good 
farming, region. The products are gold diamonds, ostrich 
feathers, wheat, wool and wine. The part of Africa be- 
tween the desert and the English possessions is under the 
control of Belgium, Portugal, Great Britain and France. 
The English are building a railroad from Capetown to 
Cairo, which will tend to develop the region through 
1 which it passes. Alexandria, Capetown, and Belagoa on 
the east cost, are leading seaports. The Nile, Congo, 
. Niger and Zambezi, are the largest rivers. 


AUSTRALIA 


Australia is a self-governing British colony. The 
Tropic of Capricorn passes a little north of the center. 
Its latitude together with the nature of the soil, gives it a 
hot climate though moderated along the coast by the ocean 
breezes. The interior is an uninhabited desert. Wool 
growing is the first, and mining the second industry of 
importance, while manufacturing and grazing are now re- 
ceiving much attention. Wheat, fruit, fiax and silk, are 
produced in considerable quantities. The country is Eng- 


— 22 — 


lish in everything that pertains to civilization. The five 
provinces with their capitals are: Queensland, Brisbane; 
New South Wales, Sydney; Victoria, Melbourne; South 
Australia, Adelaide; West Australia, Perth. Melbourne is 
an important port. Sydney is a naval base and the princi- 
pal port and city. These cities are about the size of Si 
Louis. Australia has “Home Rule.” The Governor Gen- 
eral is chosen by the British crown. The Senate and 
House of Representatives form the legislative branch, and 
the members of each house are elected by the people. 

The Commonwealth of Australia is independent of 
Great Britain in all things except matters that affect the 
British Empire as a whole. One third of the while popu- 
lation live in the six capital cities all of which have good 
harbors and railway connections with the -interior. 


SOUTH AMERICA 


South America is mostly in the torrid zone. The equa- 
tor crosses the mouth of the Amazon, and the tropic of 
Capricorn crosses near Rio Janeiro. The Andes Moun- 
tains are in the west, the Pampas of the La Plata in the 
South, the Selvas of the Amazon in the east, and the Llanos 
of the Orinoco in the north. The La Plata River flows 
southeast, the Amazon east, and the Orinoco north east, 
all into ihe Atlantic. There is a great diversity of people, 
climate and industries in South America. The people of 
Argentina and Chili are the most progressive and most 
highly civilized. The Spanish language and Catholic re- 
ligion prevail as a result of the occupancy of South 
America by the Spaniards. The government of all the 
states is republican in form. The various industries of 


— 23 — 


South America are best described by an imaginary trip 
around the grand division. 

Starting with Panama the youngest state, and going 
east across Columbia and Venezuela we find grains and 
fruits growing on the highlands, coffee, sugar cane and 
tobacco on the lowlands. In Venezuela we find many cat- 
tle on the Llanos, dye-woods and rubber in the forests, 
coffee, and tobacco below 500 feet elevation, and gold in 
the mountains. Proceeding into the Guianas, we find the 
people engaged in digging gold, obtaining rubber from the 
forests, and raising coffee and sugar-cane along the coast. 
We now reach Brazil with an area of 3,300,000 square 
miles and a mixed population of 21,000,000. Along the 
Amazon valley much rubber is produced. Brazil furnishes 
three-fourths of the coffee used in the world. Rio Janeiro, 
the capital, and Santos are the coffee ports. Cotton, sug- 
ar, tobacco, and fruit are produced in the highlands. Going 
south, we find the diamond region and the cattle region. 
Entering Uruguay, we find many sheep and cattle. In Ar- 
gentina we find all kinds of farming. Wool, wheat, and 
cattle, are the leading products. Argentina takes high 
rank as an agricultural and as a manufacturing nation. It 
produces wheat, alfalfa, sugar cane, tobacco and coffee. 
The soil is fertile and the climate good. At the southern 
extremities of Argentina and Chili it is too cold for farm- 
nig but many sheep are seen. Proceeding north through 
Cliili we find much silver, coal, and nitrate of soda, which 
forms the base of much of our fertilizers. Much of the 
sulphate of soda is sold in the United States. Much wheat, 
tobacco and vegetables are raised. Large herds of cattle 
and sheep are found. Argentina and Chili are mostly in 
the temperate zone and are the most advanced of South 
American countries. These countries are settled largely 
by American and European immigrants. Peru is just 


— 24 — 


north of Chili and is noted for its gold and silver mines, 
corn, wheat, potatoes, and cotton are raised. Ecuador is 
crossed by the equator but owing to its altitude, much of 
it has a temperate climate. Farming and cattle raising 
are the leading occupations. One fifth of the cocoa pro- 
duced in the world comes from Ecuador. Bolivia and 
Taraguay has no sea coast. The former produces silver 
ad tin, and the latter, tobacco, rice, tapioca, and Para- 
guay tea. 

Brazil is in the torrid zone and the people are defi- 
cient in education, civilization, and progressiveness. The 
country produces more coffee and rubber than all the rest 
of the v7orld. It has many fine harbors. 

Argentina (area 1,150,000, pop. 11,000,000) is the most 
progressive nation of South America. It is in the temper- 
ate zone; farming and grazing are the chief occupations. 
The commerce of this country is mostly with England and 
Germany but since the recent world war the United States 
has secured a large share of South American trade. The 
buildings at Buenos Aires for freezing meat are the larg- 
est in the world. 


EUROPE 


Nearly all of Europe is north of the 40th parallel 
north latitude and Hammerfest, its most northern city, is 
in the Frigid zone. Were it not for the prevailing wester- 
lies and the warm winds from off the Gulf Stream, the 
greater part of Europe would be in the cold temperate 
zone. But these warm damp winds moderate the climate 
so that Great Britain, Denmark and Germany though in 


— 25 — 


the latitude of Canada have as mild and equable a climate 
as the U. S. 

Europe has the mose irregular coast line of all the 
grand divisions, giving it an abundance of good harbors. 
The chief ports are, Liverpool, London, Glasgow of Great 
Britain, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and Havre of France; Ham- 
burg of Germany; Venice, Naples and Trieste of Italy; 
and Odessa of Russia. 

France, Switzerland, Portugal, Germany, Russia and 
Austria, are republics; Turkey is an absolute monarchy; 
the other countries are limited monarchies with very lib- 
eral governments. The climate is good, the soil fertile, 
and natural resources are abundant. The vegetation rang- 
es from the sub-tropical in Greece, Italy, southern France 
and Spain, to the varieties usually found in the warm and 
cold temperate zones. 

Canals — The Volga river with its network of canals 
crossing from river to river, enables boats to carry freight 
to nearly every large town of Russia. The rivers of west- 
ern Russia, are connected by canals to the Vistula, Oder, 
Elbe, and the Rhine. All the large rivers of Germany and 
France are connected by a system of canals thus reaching 
all the ports, and affording a cheap and ready means of 
transporting freight. Belgium and the Netherlands have a 
net work of canals connecting with the Rhine, Seine, Loire, 
Garonne, thence to the Rhone and to the Meditterranean 
Sea. The Rhine and Danube are also connected by a 
canal thus completing a waterway from the North Sea to 
the Black Sea. 


GREAT BRITAm 


Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) has a 
diversity of industries ; grazing, fishing, mining and 
manufacturing. Although small in area (89,000 square 


— 26 — 


miles) it ranks next to the U. S. as a coal producing 
country. It takes first place in manufacturing; in this 
industry, the following cities are noted: Leeds and Brad- 
ford for the manufacture of cloth; Leicvfster for woolens; 
Manchester, for cotton cloth; Birmingham, Sheffield, and 
Glasgow, for iron and steel products; Belfast for linen. 
England is a great commercial and financial center. While 
the government of England is Monarchial in form, it is 
quite as liberal as our own. The English are generally 
protestant Christians, and represent the highest type of 
civilization. Their principal foreign possessions, are India, 
Canada, Australia, and South Africa. Liverpool is the 
leading seaport and is connected with Manchester by a 
ship canal. Bristol, Portsmouth, and London are very 
important as ports. They import raw material and food 
supplies, and export manufactured articles. 


GERMANY 


Germany is just south of the Baltic sea. It lies be- 
tween the meridians of 6 degrees east and 20 degrees 
east and between the parallels of 47 degrees north and 
57 degrees north. Since losing Alsace-Lorraine on the 
west and a part of Prussian Poland on the east, as a re- 
sult of the late war, the area is somewhat less than 
200,000 square miles, and the population, about 60,000,000. 

Preparation for war has been one of the leading oc- 
cupations of the old empire and their militarism has re- 
sulted in defeat, national humiliation, loss of territory, 
loss of one-half of her entire wealth, their reduction to a 
second rate power and the irreparable loss of the prime 
of her manhood. Since the signing of the Armistice, Nov. 
11, 1918, a republic has been established. The new presi- 


— 27 — 


dent, Ebert, stated that the old order had gone forever, 
and that the very essence of the new constitution must be 
freedom, but freedom which is regulated by law. 

The southern half of Germany is a broken plateau 
and the northern half is a rolling plain, lowest in the 
west but broadening towards the east un^il it merges into 
the great Russian plain. 

Four large rivers — Yistula, Oder, Elbe, IVeser, and the 
Rhine — Cow to the northwest across Germany. These 
rivers are connected by many canals forming a net work 
of excellent waterways. 

Agriculture, manufacturing, mining and wood work 
are the leading occupations. The German people for 
years have led the world, in science, and in the excellency 
of their schools. After the United States and Great Brit- 
ain, Gennany has been first in manufacturing and in the 
production of coal and iron, but since losing the great 
coal and iron regions of Allsace-Lorraine, and the Saar 
Basin, both in the south western part of the old German 
empire, its rank in the staple products will’ be reduced. 

Cologne, Dresden, and Breslau are noted for the man- 
ufacture of cotton, wool, and silk products, and for cut- 
lery and toys, Dresden is noted for its art museum; Ham- 
burg, for being the most important port on the continent. 

The Germans are progressive, thrifty, and are in the 
highest class in culture, intelligence, and civilization. We 
sell them cotton and food supplies; we buy of them cloth, 
cutlery, drugs, toys, and musical instruments. In 1913, 
our export trade with Germany amounted to $300,000,000, 
and our imports, to $175,000,000. This was exceeded only 
by our trade with England. 

Berlin was the capital of the empire; the new govern- 
ment was organized at Weimar. 


- 28 - 


REPUBLIC OF FRANCE 


France has extensive shore lines on both the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. It has fertile soil, 
a good climate, and over half the people are engaged in 
farming, grapes and wheat being the leading crops. In 
the manufacture of silk, lace, and wine, France leads the 
world. LUle, Ronbaix, and Reims, are noted for the man- 
ufacture of fine woolens, and cotton goods. As Paris leads 
in fashions, the wearing apparel from the French mills are 
models in elegance and quality. Lyons is the center of the 
fiilk trade. Marseille, Bordean, and Havre are the ports. 
Ximoges is noted for the manufacture of porcelain. The 
religion is Protestant and Catholic. The French are of the 
highest class of civilization and are noted for their intelli- 
gence, and ingenuity. The greater part of the foreign 
commerce of the U. S., is carried on with England, Ger- 
many, and France. We sell food supplies, raw material 
and some manufactured articles to them and buy of them, 
woolen and cotton goods, cutlery, porcelain, silks, drugs, 
and toys. 

The leading rivers, the Rhone, the Seine, the Loire, 
and the Garonne are joined by numerous canals affording 
excellent transportation facilities. Northeastern France 

has rich coal and iron deposits. In this region are found 
the great manufacturing cities — Ronbaix, Lille, Amiens, 
Reims, — which suffered so much by the German occupa- 
tion during the late war. 

Paris, the capital, is the third city of the world in 
size. It is noted for its beauty, its schools and art col- 
lections. 


— 29 — 


RUSSIA 


Russia^ including Siberia occupies about one-sixth of 
the land area of the globe. It is so far inland that the 
Gulf stream does not materially affect the climate, con- 
sequently much of it is in the cold temperate zone. Nine- 
tenths of the people are farmers, yet the lumber and oil 
interests are important. Russia ranks next to tliu U. S. 
in the production of oil and wheat. Most of the manu- 
facturing is done by hand. The Cossacks are nomadic 
herdsmen living in the southeast. There is much coal and 
other minerals, though but slightly developed. Petrograd 
and Odessa are the leading ports. The latter, being in 
the great grain region, has many flouring mills. The 
Greek Church, a modified form of the Catholic Church, is 
the state church. Russia owns all of Siberia and has im- 
proved it by building the Trans-Siberian Railway through 
Omsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk, to Vladivostok. 

One of the far reaching results of the war with Ger- 
many (1914-1918) was the overthrow of the Russian abso- 
lute monarchy. The attempt to form a republic under 
the leadership of Kerensky failed. The socialistic govern- 
ment under Lenine and Trotsky has been a costly experi- 
ment but may prove to be a part of the schooling the 
Russian people need to enable them to establish a modern 
republic. 

Rqssia is rich in natural resources. The climate is 
excellent, the soil is fertile, and the people lack only one 
thing, education. 

Russia will become more influential and powerful 
with the education of her people and the development of 
her natural resources. As a result of the late war, Rus- 
sia lost much of her territory by the re-establishment of 


— 30 — 


the old state of Poland which had been conquered and 
divided among Austria, Prussia, and Russia in 1795. War- 
saw and Lodz two of the most important cities of the old 
Empire is in the new state of Poland. 

Finland was until recently a part of the Russian 
Empire but is now independent. It is east of Sweden and 
north of the gulf of Finland. Area 145,000 square miles; 
population, 3,000,000; capital Helsingfors. The Finns are 
highly educated. Many Finns and Poles came to America 
to escape Russian tyranny. 


ITALY 


We speak of “Sunny Italy” and think of it as the land 
of flowers and tropical fruits, yet Milan and Venice are in 
about the same latitude as Montreal. The high Alps, 
trending east and west along the northern boundary, pro- 
tects the country from the cold north winds. The warm 
waters of the Mediterranean with the warm south winds, 
together with the fact that Italy is in the “horse latitudes,” 
makes it well adapted to subtropical fruits and the pro- 
ducts of the warm temperate zone. The Po valley is 
among the richest in the world. Though there is an 
abundance of rain, irrigation is extensively practiced and 
from four to six crops may be raised in a year. Grapes, 
wheat, corn, silk, lemons, oranges and chestnuts are pro- 
duced in great quantities. Though rich in agricultural 
products, there is a notable scarcity of minerals. Water 
power takes the place of coal to some extent. Italy sur- 
passes all other countries in its fine art museums, and in 
the number and magnificence of its cathedrals. Rome and 
Jfaples are the only two large cities in the south. In 


-si- 


northern Italy, are Milan, Turin, Tenice, Genoa and Flor- 
ence. 

Genoa, the birthplace of Columbus, is the most import- 
ant seaport of Italy. 

Tenice is a large seaport near the head of the Ad- 
riatic. It is built upon more than a hundred islands, 
canals taking the place of streets. Trieste is now an. 
Italian port. 

Naples on the Bay of Naples near volcano Vesuvius, 
is the largest city of Italy. 

Rome, the capital, is the most noted city. It was the 
capital of the old Roman world. Rome is noted for its 
ruins, chief of which are, the Colosseum, the Forum, and 
the Pantheon. St. Peter’s Cathedral, and the Vatican, tha 
residence of the Pope, are among the most magnificent 
buildings in the world. In the Vatican are found some of 
the finest of Micheal Angelo’s paintings. 

Da Vinci’s famous painting, “The Last Supper,” is on 
the wall of a monastery in Milan. 


AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 


One of the results of the world war was the dismem- 
berment of the old empire of Austria-Hungary. The north- 
eastern part, north and east of the Carpathian Mountains 
was given to the restored state of Poland. Th,e southern 
part was added to Serbia to form the new state of Jugo- 
slavia. To Italy was given the country about Trieste, and 
Tyrol, in the southwest. Czecho-Slovakia, a new state 
was created from the region west and northwest of the 
Carpathian mountains, inclduing Bohemia and Moravia. 


— 32 — 


All that is left of Austria is the strictly German section 
of the old empire lying south of Bohemia, north of Italy 
and west from a point a few miles east of Vienna. Hun- 
gary, deprived of territory on all sides, will have an area 
of about 50,000 square miles which is about double that 
of Austria. 

This region is similar to the United States in climate, 
soil, surface, and products. While rich in natural re- 
sources they are not well developed. A general lack of 
education and poor transportation facilities have kept 
these countries back in manufacturing and commerce. 

Vienna and the adjacent country has been a great 
educational center and like the Germans, the military 
class has excelled in science and medicine and have given 
the world the benefits of many great inventions and dis- 
coveries. Their physicians and surgeons are unexcelled. 
Like the Germans, they intensified the study of science 
by experiment and by investigation, that the practical 
lessons learned might be applied to the prosecution of 
war. 

Coal, iron, copper, porcelain clay, salt, silver, and 
lead are found in abundance. Grain and cattle are ex- 
ported. 

Vienna is the capital of Austria and Budapest is the 
capital of Hungary. These countries are now independ- 
ent of each other and are democratic. 


THE BALKANT STATES 


They are called the “Balkan States” because they are 
situated among the Balkan mountains. They consist of 
the states of Bumania, Jugo-Slavia, Albania, and Bulgaria 
and at one time, was a part of Turkey. 


— 33 — 


These countries contain some of the best farm lands 
of Europe. Wheat, corn, oats, tobacco, hogs, cattle, and 
sheep, are among the exports. 

Greece, by the late war, has added territory to the 
north and northeast and now reaches from the Ionian 
sea to the Black Sea. 

Constantinople with a small strip of territory adjacent 
to it, is now in reality an “international state” and is no 
longer under the exclusive control of the Turks. The 
League of Nations will establish a mandatory over it. 

Fiume and Belgrade are leading cities of Jugo-Slavia. 
Bukarest, the capital of Rumania is the Paris of the East. 


PLACES MADE FAMOUS BY THE WAR 


Antwerp, Brussels, Liege, and Louvain in Belgium. 
Lisle, Rheims, Calais and Dunkirk, in Northern France. 
Helgoland, an island' northwest of Hamburg belonging' to 
Germany. Salonika in Greek Macedonia. Gallipoli, a pen- 
insula on the west shore of the Dardanelles in Turkey. 
Warsaw in Russian Poland. Monastir, Serbia. 

France, Belgium, Poland and Serbia have suffered 
most on account of the great European war. 

The Allies; England, France, United States, Belgium, 
Russia, Italy, Serbia and Japan. 

The Teutons: Germany, Austria, Turkey and Bulgaria. 


— 34 — 


ASIA 


The southern point of Asia nearly reaches to the equa- 
tor, while the northern point (Cape Chelyuskin) reaches 
far into the Frigid Zone. The 40th parallel passes some- 
what south of the center, and the Tropic of Cancer passes 
near Hongkong, Calcutta, and Muscat near the center of 
Arabia. It extends east to within 50 miles of North 
America and west to about the longitude of Petrograd. 
It contains about one third of the land of the globe. South 
Central Asia contains the largest mass of highland in the 
world 1,500,000 square miles of which is over 10,000 feet 
high. Mt. Everest, the highest peak is 29,000 feet high. 
From this highland region three large rivers (Lena, Obi, 
and Yenisei) flow north; three (Amoor, Hoang-ho and 
Yangste, flow east; four, (MeKong, Ganges, Brahmaputra, 
and Indus) flow south. Northwestern Siberia, eastern 
China, and northern India are plains; the balance of Asia 
is mountainous. In so vast a land, with such a diversity 
in elevations, extending through such a range of latitude, 
there must be every variety of climate. The nine hundred 
million people, (half the human race) live mostly near the 
coast and along the river valleys. The mountains, pla 
teaus, steppes, deserts, forests and tundras, support but 
few inhabitants. Two-thirds of the people are mongolians 
and one-third white. The chief religions are Buddhism, 
Brahmanism, and Mohammedanism. The civilization of 
Europe failing to cross the vast deserts of Asia, is now 
entering the continent from its eastern shores. The na- 
tives are indolent, non-progressive and uncultured. 

India with an area of 1,560,000 square miles and a 
population of over 300,000,000 is governed by England, 
wisely and well. While the Governor General and many 


— 35 — 


other administrative officers are Englishmen, appointed by 
the King, most of the offices are filled by the natives. A 
majority of the people are engaged in farming. Wheat, 
rice, tea, and cotton are exported to Great Britain. The 
cultivation of rice requires irrigation, and in the dryer 
sections other crops require it, consequently, India has 
some of the most extensive irrigation works in the world. 

This is the part of the world Columbus was seeking 
when he discovered America. The same valuable products 
— spices, silks, ivory, perfumes, dyewoods, and precious 
stones — are still found, and in addition, much cotton, and 
sugar are exported. The civilization of India is older 
than that of ancient Greece and Rome. 

India leads the world in the production of cattle. 

Delhi in the interior is the capital. 

Calcutta on the delta of the Ganges and near the Tropic 
of Cancer, is the largest city. Bombay and Madras are 
leading ports. , 

The Dutch East Indies export sugar, coffee, spices, 
tobacco and tin. 

The Pliilippine Islands are in the torrid zone, and have 
a luxuriant vegetation. Rice, bananas, oranges, pineap- 
ples, and other tropical fruits grow in abundance. To- 
bacco, sugar, and Manila hemp are exported. 


CHEVA 


China resembles the U. S. in climate and soil and is 
an agricultural country. It produces rice, tea, and silk in 
great quantities. Rice is the principal food used by the 
natives, and but little of it is exported. The country is 
rich in coal, gold, silver and iron ore, but its natural re- 


— 36 — 


Eources are not developed. Canton, a little larger than 
Chicago, is its leading port. Hong Kong, on an island, 
belongs to Great Britain. Shanghai and Tientsin are im- 
portant ports. The religious are Confucianism, Taoism, 
and Buddhism. The government on January 1, 1912, be- 
came a republic. Before that date, it was an absolute 
monarchy. The area of China is 4,375,000 sq. mi. Its 
population is 420,000,000. The works of Confucius consti- 
tute the course of study at schools and colleges. The 
Chinese are mongolians. They are unprogressive, and 
bitterly oppose the introduction of railroads, telephones, 
and all labor saving machinery. The Chinese civilization 
is very old but not of a high standard. They have remark- 
able skill and are unsurpassed in the manufacture of por- 
celain and in filigree work. Considering their soil, climate, 
and natural resources, the Chinese should be among the 
wealthiest and most powerful nations on the globe. But 
their persistence in adhering to old customs, and their 
exclusiveness commercially, make them unprogressive and 
weak as a nation. Those at the head of the revolution in 
China, which resulted in a republic, were educated in the 
schools of Europe and America and know the meaning and 
influence of modern civilization. It is expected that the 
new government will bring about a social revolution that 
will insure China’s greatness. The possibilities of China 
and the Chinese people are unbounded, and appear on a 
fair way to be realized. They need a new religion and 
the leavening influences of western civilization. 


EMPIRE OF JAPAJI 


Japan has an area of 161,000 square miles, has a pop- 
ulation of about 50,000,000. Nippon, the largest island and 
other islands near it have a good climate and plenty of 
rain. The islands are very rough and about four-fifths 


of the empire can not be cultivated. The Japanese are an 
agricultural people and are the best gardeners in the 
world. While wheat, sugar cane, and rice are produced, 
tea and silk are the leading exports. The country is rich 
In coal, iron,' gold, silver, and copper, which are now well 
developed. Fishing is an important industry. Many large 
manufacturing establishments are in operation. The Jap- 
anese are now a great and highly civilized people. They 
publish over seven hundred newspapers and magazines, 
maintain a splendid school system and they now take rank 
with the great powers of the world. The religion is Bud- 
dhism, Shintoism, and Christianity. The government is a 
limited monarchy; the ruler is called the Mikado. Japan 
now controls Korea a rich agricultural country between 
the Japan and Yellow Seas. 

In area, population, latitude and government, Japan 
is about the same as Great Britain, but in religion, educa- 
tion, and industry there is a wide difference. 

By the “Treaty of Paris” Japan is given temporary 
control of the Shantung peninsula, in northeastern China, 
and especially the rights and privileges in and about Kiau- 
€hau, which were exercised by Germany since her treaty 
with China in 1897, at the close of the “Boxer” uprising. 


MISCELLAJfEOUS 


SEAS 


The Bering, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, East China, South 
\ Ar"’ ' Re'l rie'l’terranean, Marmora, Black, Cas- 
pian, and Kara seas, touch Asia, The Caspian, Black, 
Marmora, Mediterranean, Adriatic, North, Baltic, White, 
^ ’ch Europe. The Mediterranean, 


— 38 — 


Black and Baltic, are inland seas. The water flows in at 
Gibraltar and out at Skagerrack. Yv'hy? 


LAKES 


Lake Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, Ontario, (The 
Great Lakes), drain through the St. Lawrence into the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence. Lake Winnipeg, through the Nelson 
into Hudson Bay. Great Bear Lake, Great Slave Lake, 
and Athabasca Lake, drain through the Mackenzie into the 
Arctic Ocean. Ticteria, Tanganyika, and Nyassa, are lakes 
in the eastern part of Africa. Lake Tcliad in central 
Africa is a large fresh water lake, during the rainy season 
on the highlands; during the dry season, much of it is 
hut a marsh, and its outlet, a wady. 

Amadus, Eyre, Gairdner, and Torrens, are lakes of 
Australia. Maracaibo, and Titicaca are lakes of South 
America. Omega, Ladoga, near Petrograd, and Geneva, 
Constance and Como among the Alps are lakes of Europe. 
Balkash in Turkestan, and Baikal in eastern Siberia, are 
lakes of Asia. 

Islands — Papua or New Guina (A 311,000 P. 1,000,000) 
is north of Australia. Borneo (A 200, P. 2) south-east of 
Asia, has rich deposits of coal and timber, and exports 
timber, rice, coffee, and pepper. Madagascar (A 228, P. 3) 
is east of southern Africa. It belongs to France. It ex- 
ports tropical fruits, spices, sugar, coffee, and cotton. 
Java in the East Indies (A 51, P. 30) is the most important 
foreign possession of The Netherlands. It exports coffee 
and sugar in great quantities. Ceylon (A 25, P. 4) is 
south of India. It produces tea, rice, and cocoanuts. It 
is a valuable British possession. Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, 


— 39 — 


Crete, Balearic Isles, Cyprus, Malta, and Gibraltar, are 
islands of the Mediterranean Sea. The last three belong 
to Great Britain. (Areas given above are in thousands; 
population in millions.) 

Countries touching the Mediterranean — Morocco, Al- 
geria, Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt, Asiatic Turkey, Greece, Tur- 
key, Jugo-Slavia, Italy, France and Spain. 


WHERE WE GET CERTAIN COMERCIAL ARTICLES. 


We get coffee from Brazil and Java; tea from Ceylon 
and China; rice from Japan; spices from Ceylon and East 
Indies; silk from France, Japan and China; woolen cloth 
from England and France; laces from France and Austria; 
diamonds from Holland and Transvaal; ostrich feathers 
from South Africa and Australia; tin from Wales and East 
Indies; drugs from Germany, Austria and Italy; sulphur 
from Italy; hardware from England and Germany; olives 
from Italy; sugar from Cuba; cork from Portugal; linen 
from Ireland and Holland; grapes and wine from Portugal, 
Spain, and France; tobacco from Cuba; quinine from 
northern part of South America; tapioca from Uraguay; 
pearls from Arabia, Persia, and Africa; ivory from The 
Sudan; sardines from Portugal and Italy; dates and figs, 
from Turkey in Asia; amber from Germany; sponges from 
Italy and Spain; platinum from Siberia; hemp’ and rope, 
from Philippine Islands ; porcelain from China and Prance ; 
matting from Japan and China; mace from Ceylon, wool 
from Australia and Argentina. 

Wool is exported from Argentina, Australia, and 
Spain. 


— 40 — 


— 


IVlieat, from the United States, Russia, Argentina, In- 
dia and South Africa. 

Cattle, from U. S., Argentina, Russia, and Austria. 

Petroleum, from the United States, Russia and Mexico. 
These three countries produce 90 per cent of the output 
of the world. 

Cotton is exported from the United States, India, and 
Egypt. 

Sugar, from Cuba, East Indies, Germany, and Brazil. 


111., Mo., Iowa, Kan., Neb., N. D., S. D. and Minn., are 
the wheat states. 

111., Mo., Iowa, Kan., Neb., Ind. and Ohio, are the com 
states. 

All these are great cattle states. 

Places noted for their natural scenery — Mammoth 
Cave, Ky.; Natural Bridge, Va.; Pictured Rocks, on shore 
of Lake Superior; Niagara Falls; Garden of the Gods, 
Colorado; Geysers of Yellowtsone National Park; Pali- 
sades of the Hudson; Golden Gate, California; Canon of 
Colorado, Arizona; Falls of Yosemite, Cal.; Death Valley, 
California; Buttes, Montana. 

The United States, Canada, Alaska, Mexico, Central 
America, and the West Indies are the political divisions 
of North America. 


41 


As shown by 1910 Census. 

Leading Cities Leading Cities 

of the United States of the World 


cities 

Population 

5,006,000 

Cities 

TiOndnn 

Population 

7,253,000 

Chicago 

2,185,000 

New York 

5,006,000 

Philadelphia 

1,550,000 

Paris 

2.765,000 

St. Louis 

690,000 

okyo 

2,186,000 

Boston 


Berlin 


Cleveland 

660,000 

Vienna 

2,030,000 

Baltimore 

558,000 

Petrograd 


Pittsburg 


Buenos Ayres 


Detroit 


Constantinople 


Buffalo 


Calcutta 

1,027,000 

San Prancisco 

417,000 

‘Hamburg 

932,000 

Milwaukee 

375,000 

Canton 

900,000 

Pin/»innflti 

364,000 

Rio de Janeiro. 

811,000 

Newark, N. J 

347,000 

Gla.sgow 

784,000 

New Orleans 

340,000 

Cairo 

654,000 

Washington 


Sydney 

592,000 

T.na Angeles 

320,000 

Mexico City 

365,000 

Minneapolis 

301,000 

Havana 

297,000 

Jersey City 

268,000 

Montreal 

267,000 


Leading Cities of West Tirginia — Huntington, popula- 
tion 45,000, Wheeling, 41,515; Charleston, 27,703; Parkers- 
burg, 19,719; Morgantown, 12,239; Martinsburg, 12,032; 
Fairmont, 11,439; Clarksburg, 11,394; Moundsville, 10,433; 
Bluefield, 11,188; Grafton, 7,563; Elkins, 5,260; Benwood, 
4, 976; Wellsburg, 4,189. 

Goiernment is of three kinds: Republic, Limited 

Monarchy, and Absolute Monarchy. 

In the following table, the areas are given in thous- 
ands and the population in millions. R. stands for Re- 
public; L. M. for Limited Monarchy; and A. M. for Abso- 
lute Monarchy. 


— 42 — 



Ara. 

PO. 

Great Britain.... 

89 

43 

Germany 

210 

65 

France 

207 

40 

Russia 

1976 

114 

Austria 

240 

50 

Italy 

110 

35 

Spain 

198 

20 

Mexico 

767 

15 

Brazil 

3218 

21 

Argentina 

1113 

7 

Chill 

291 

3 

Japan 

178 

60 

Turkey 

67 

25 

Holland 

13 

6 

••••■••••••••••■ 

4300 

407 


Capital 

Port 

Govt. 

Title 

of 

Euler 

London 

Liverpool 

L M. 

King 

Berlin 

Hamburg 

R 

Emperor r 

Paris 

Marseilles 

R. 

iPresident - 

Petrograd 

Odessa 

R 


Vienna 


R 


Rome 

Naples 

L M. 

King ■ 

Madrid 

Barcelona 

L M. 

King 

Mexico 

Vera Cruz 

R. 

• ’resident 

Rio Janeiro 

Bahia 

R. 

President - 

Buenos Ayres - 

Buenos Ayres - 

R. 

President - 

Santiago 

Valparaiso 

R. 

President 

Tokyo 

Yokohama 

L. M. 

Mikado 

Constantinople 

Constantinople 

A. M. 

Sultan 

The Hague 

Amsterdam 

L. M. 

King - 

Peking 

Shanghai 

R. 

President 






Areas and Populations are Giyen in bullions: 


Asia 

Africa 

N. America. 
S. America. 

Europe 

Australia .. 


Area 


ir 

11.5 

9 

7 

3.8 

3.4 



925 Everest 

130 ’Kilimanjaro. 

130 1 McKinley 

50 [Aconcagua.... 
450 Mt. Blanc.... 
7 Kosciusco 


Largest City 


Tokyo 

Cairo 

Kew York 

Buenos Ayres.. 

London 

Sydney 


Longest 


Yenisei 

Nile 

I Mississippi. 
Amazon 

1 Murray 


River 


43 — 


DICTIONARY OF GEOGRAPHY 


Acclimatioii — The ability to live in s region or envir- 
onment differing largely from original conditions. 

Alhambra — A Moorish palace at Granada. 

Alsace-Lorraine — ^The south west corner of the old 
german empire containing the cities of Metz and Strass- 
burg. It was obtained from France in 1870 and was ceded 
to France by the treaty of Paris 1919. It is about the 
size of Connecticut and has rich coal and iron deposits. 

Antliracite Coal is hard coal, and differs from bitumin- 
ous or soft coal in the greater metamorphism it has un- 
dergone. Coal is formed by the decomposition of animal 
and vegetable matter. 

Antitrades — (See winds.) 

Aphelion — The point in the earth’s orbit farthest from 
the sun. 

Artesian Wells are flowing wells in basin shaped 
regions supplied from points having greater altitude than 
the mouth of the well. 

Asphaltum is used in making asphalt pavements. It 
is found oozing from the ground in the island of Trinidad 
which is located opposite the mouth of the Orionoco river. 
This island belongs to Great Britain. 

Atmosphere — A gaseous substance surro’^irding the 
earth composed of oxygen and nitrogen iL. cne ratio of 21 
to 79. The heat of the sun causes the air to circulate. 
The pressure of the air at the ocean level is 15 pounds to 
the square inch and is measured by an instrument called 
the barometer; its temperature is measured by the ther- 
mometer. 


Atolls are coral Islands. 

Aurora Australis — An illuminated arch of moving 
streamers in far southern latitudes. In northern lati- 
tudes it is called Borealis. They are of magnetic origin. 

Avalanche — A huge mass of snow or earth sliding 
down a mountain. 

Azores Islands — A group of islands belonging to, and 
900 miles west of, Portugal. 

Bad Lands — Arid regions sharply carved by wet weath- 
er rills; as, western Nebraska and southwestern S. D. 

Banks are extensive elevations in the bottom of the 

sea. 

Barbara States — The four countries of northern Africa 
lying west of Egypt, — Tripoli, Tunis, Algeria and Morocco. 
Algeria and Tunis belong to France, Tripoli to Italy, and 
Morocco is independent. These are agricultural countries, 
and the home of the Berbers. 

Bay, (Bight, Inlet or Gulf) — ^An arm of the sea ex- 
tending into the land. 

Beach — The sandy sea shore. 

Boers — Dutch farmers of South Africa. 

Bore or Eager — A piling up of the waters at the mouth 
of a river caused by the meeting of the tidal wave and 
the current of the river, resulting in whirlpools and waves. 

Buttes (Mesas) are flat topped table mountains. 

Calms (Doldrums). A belt of light breezes and as- 
cending currents on each side of the equator between the 
trade winds. 

Canals are artificial water-ways (see ship canals.) 


— 45 — 


Canons are very deep and narrow valleys caused by 
erosion. 

Cape — A point of land projecting into the water. 
North American Capes: Barrow, Mariato, Sable, Prince of 
Wales, Mendocino, Cod, Hatteras, N. C., Charles and Henry 
at entrance of Chesapeake Bay, May and Henlopen at 
Delaware Bay. South American: Gallinas, St. Roque, 
Horn, and Parina. African Capes: Bon, Guardafui, Agul- 
has and Verde. 

Catacombs — Extensive chambers and subterranean 
galleries under the City of Rome used as a place of refuge 
and burial by the persecuted Christians during the second 
and third centuries. 

Ceylon — An island south of India noted for the pro- 
duction of tea and cinnamon. 

Change of Day and Jfight is caused by the rotation of 
the earth on its axis. 

Change of Seasons is caused by the revolution of the 
earth around the sun together with the inclination and 
unvarying direction of the earth’s axis. 

Circles — Plane figures hounded by curved lines ever> 
point of which is equi-distant from a point within called 
the center. The 20th meridian west and the 160th meri- 
dian east form a great circle and divide the earth into an 
eastern and western hemisphere. The circle of illumina- 
tion is the line that separates the light side of the earth 
from the dark. 

Cleopatra’s Needle — A stone monument 60 feet high, 
brought from Egypt to New York in 1880. The change 
in climate caused it to crumble rapidly and to require a 
preservative coating. 


— 46 — 


Climate is the condition of the atmosphere as regards 
temperature, winds, moisture, and healthfulness. 

The following agencies modify climate; (1) Elevation. 
(2) Latitude. (3) Distance from large bodies of water. 
(4) Prevailing winds. (5) Ocean currents. 

The sun heats the earth which in turn heats the at- 
mosphere. It is colder on top of a mountain than at its 
base because the air is lighter on the mountain top, and 
because the mountain top is farther away from the body 
of the earth. 

Warm ocean currents cause the isothermal lines to 
bend to the north in the northern hemisphere and to the 
south in the southern hemisphere; cold currents and high 
elevations cause these lines to bend in reverse directions. 

('louds — ^Visible masses of air reduced below its dew 
point, and floating in the higher regions of the atmos- 
phere. Fog, mist, and haze, differ from clouds only in 
elevation. 

Classes of clouds: Cirrus, Cumulus, stratus nimbus. 
The dense fogs off the coast of New Foundland are caused 
by the meeting of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold 
Labrador current. 

Coastal Plain — lowland sloping gently from the foot- 
hills of the mountains to* the sea. 

Coal — (See Anthracite). 

Contour — Outlines or coast line. 

Coronae — Rings of prismatic colors surrounding the 
moon. 

Corrasion — A deepening and broadening of a stream 
channel by material brought into it by weathering. 

Cossacks — Russian cow-boys. 


— 47 — 


Co-tidal Lines — Lines connecting places having high 
tides at the same time. 

Colosseum — The Flavian Amphitheater at Rome. 

Crater — A volcanic opening into the earth from which 
issue fire, smoke, steam, ashes and lava. 

Crevasse — A deep fissure broken in a glacier. 

Currents — A constant interchanging of the waters of 
the ocean caused by the sun’s heat and the wind. 

In the northern hemisphere, the warm currents flow 
to the northeast, and in the southern, they flow to the 
southeast. The reason they do not flow north and south, 
is because they are constantly reaching points having a 
slower velocity than they have and consequently, they get 
ahead in the general eastward whirl, drifting to the north 
east, and southeast respectively. 

The cold currents coming from the polar regions to- 
wards the equator are constantly reaching points having 
a faster velocity than they have and they lag behind to 
a southwesterly course north of the equator, and a north- 
westerly course, south of it. 

Cyclone — A violent windstorm having a whirling mo- 
tion. 

Delta — The land between the mouths of a river. Ex- 
amples: Nile, Ganges, Mississippi and Rhint,. 

Desert — A barren, arid tract of land caused by the 
absence of moisture. Deserts are usually near mountains 
and are caused by the winds being deprived of their mois- 
ture in crossing the mountains just behind the desert. 
The first cause is general; the second is special and will 
apply to any particular desert. They occur most gener- 
ally in the region of the trade winds. 


— 48 — 


Deatli Valley — An arid uninhabitable region of south- 
ern California. 

Detritus (Silt) — The finely divided material brought 
down and deposited by a river. 

Dew — Moisture condensed on cold surfaces. 

Doldrums — (See Calms.) 

Dew-point — The air is at its dewpoint when it contains 
as much moisture as it is capable of holding at its exist- 
ing temperature. 

Dismal Swamp — An impenetrable swamp in Virginia. 

Drought — Absence of rain for an abnormal period. 

Drumlins — The oval hills of rock waste gatitered be- 
neath the ice during the glacial period. 

Dunes — Drifts of sand caused by the wind. 

Drowned Rivers — Rivers whose valleys have sunk; as, 
the Delaware. 

Dykes — Fissures filled by molten rock. 

Dikes — Banks of earth along a river or along the sea- 
shore to prevent inundation; as, the dikes of Holland. 

Earth — The planet on which we live. It is fifth in 
size, third in the distance from the sun. The earth is 
round, for (1) people have trav^ed around it; (2) its 
shadow upon the moon is always circular; (3) when ships 
leave the shore the hull first disappears then the lower 
part of the masts and at last the tops: (4) the horizon is 
circular: (5) the days increase in length, in the summer 
time as we go from the equator to the north pole. (6) 
Careful measurements prove it. 


— 49 — 


The earth rotates on its axis for, (1) all the other 
planets rotate; (2) a pendulum swinging in a vacuum, 
swings in the same plane at the equator but diverges 
more and more as we approach the poles; (3) Bodies fall- 
ing from a high tower reach the ground to the east of a 
plumb line drawn from the starting point; (4) The rota- 
tion of the winds in cyclones is with the hands of a watch 
in the northern hemisphere and in the opposite direction 
in the southern hemisphere; (5) change of day and night. 

The earth revolves around the sun for (1) the other 
planets revolve around it; (2) the earth is constantly* 
changing its position as regards other planets with such 
regularity as to time and direction as to define its orbit; 
(3) the change of seasons can be accounted for in no 
other way. The time of one complete revolution is 366 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 49.7 seconds. 

Earthquakes — Violent tremblings or quaking of the 
earth’s crust caused by the strain produced by the con- 
traction of a cooling crust, or by internal explosions. 

Ebb-tides are the receding tides. 

Eclipse — The obscuring of the light of a heavenly body 
by the intervention of another body. An eclipse of the 
moon is caused by the barth coming between the sun and 
the moon. 

Eddies — Return or whirling currents. 

E! Paso — A city on the Rio Grande in the extreme 
western part of Texas. It is a railroad center. 

Equinox — The times of the year (March 21 and Sept. 
22) when the sun is directly over the equator. 

Erosion — A gradual wearing away of the land caused 
by weathering, corrasion, or transportation. 


— 50 — 


Estuary — The broad open mouth of a river where the 
tides meet the current of the river. Examples: Amazon, 
La Plata, Delaware, Hudson, and Thames. 

Evaporation — The conversion of moisture into water- 
vapor. Evaporation depends upon winds, the amount of 
moisture in the air, and temperature. 

Everglades are swamps in Florida. 

Fall Line — The line separating the piedmont and tid« 
water region. 

Fingals Pave — A cave in the island of Staff a west of 
Scotland caused by the waves. 

Fauna — The animal life of a country. 

Fjords — Deep inlets with high rocky hendlands. 

Flood Plains — The part of a river valley that is oc- 
cassionally overflowed. 

Flora — The vegetable life of a country. 

Frost — Frozen dew. 

Flood Tides are the rising tides. 

Fossils — The remains of plants and aniihals buried in 
the earth by natural causes. 

Geography treats of the earth and of its relations to 
man. 

Garden of the Gods — A naturally picturesque valley in 
Colorado. 

Geysers are hot springs ejecting hot water at regular 
intervals. The three most noted geyser regions are Ice- 
land, New Zealand, and Yellowstone National Park. 

Giants Causeway on the north cost of Ireland, is a 
vast number of rock columns standing close together 


—Bl- 


and extending out into the sea forming a road or cause- 
way. 

Glacier — Huge masses of snow and ice slowly sliding 
down the mountain sides as a result of weight and pres- 
sure. Some of the most noted regions are in Alaska and 
the Alps mountains. 

Golden Gate — The entrance to San Francisco bay. 

Golden Horn — A hornshaped inlet dividing the city 
of Constantinople into two parts and is the center of the 
shipping interests. 

Gorge — A narrow steep-sided valley. 

Gulf Stream — The warm ocean current of the North 
Atlantic originating in the Gulf of Mexico and moving at 
the rate of five miles an hour in a north easterly direction 
to northern Europe. The warm winds over it penetrate 
far inland, and make England, Denmark and Germany, 
though in the latitude of Canada, temperate and produc- 
tive. Ocean steamers going from America to Europe, 
follow this stream as it accelerates the speed of the 
vessels; on coming from Europe to America, they cross 
this current and take the northern route to the Canadian 
waters then turn south, to avoid the retarding force of 
the Gulf Stream. 

Hail — Round balls of snow and water, frozen, and 
falling from the clouds. Its origin is not definitely known. 

Halo — A ring of prismatic colors surrounding the sun 
or the moon. Halos are due to the presence in the higher 
atmosphere of small crystals of ice. 

Helgoland — A strongly fortified island north west of 
Hamburg, belonging to Germany. It is the German Gib- 
raltar. 


—52 


Home peotfrapliy is taught first to establish a vocabu- 
lary for the study of general geography and that the class 
may be led from the known to the related unknown. 

Horizon — The line that bounds our view. 

Horse Latitudes — An ill-defined belt between the trad- 
es and surface and anti-trades where the upper and sur- 
face currents of opposite direction, change places. It is 
from 30 to 40 degrees from the equator. (See winds.) 

Humidity — The condition of the atmosphere as regards 
the amount of moisture it contains. 

Hydraulic Mining: — Mining by which powerful streams 
of water are used to wash down decomposed rock. 

Iceberg — A large piece of glacier that has broken off 
and floated out into the ocean. Its water is fresh. 

Interest in the study of geography may be secured by 
appealing to (1) romance and adventure, (2) to practical 
activities of child life, (3) to curiosity as to the origin and 
transportation of well known articles of commerce. 

*I()Ra* — An island off the Pictish coast which was the 
center of Christian learning for centuries. 

Irrigation — The watering of fields by canals from flow- 
ing streams or reservoirs. 

Island — A small body of land surrounded by water. 
There are two general classes: Oceanic and Continental. 
Oceanic islands are in mid-ocean and not related to any 
continent in formation. Continental islands are near con- 
tinents and are cosidered as detached parts of the main- 
land. Hawaii and St. Helena are oceanic; Cuba and Sum- 
matra are continental. Volcanic islands are those pro- 
duced by the action of volcanoes. Coral islands are the 
result of coral growth. The small islands of the Pacific 
near the equator are mostly coral. 


— 53 — 


Isothermal Lines — Lines joining places having the 
same mean annual temperature. Isothermal lines bound 
the physical zones; parallels bound the mathematical 
zones. 

Isthmus — A narrow neck of land connecting two 
larger bodies of land. 

Ivor)' — The hard creamy-white dentine of the teeth 
and tusks of the elephant and walrus. It forms a valuable 
export article from south central Africa. The walrus is 
a mammal inhabiting the Arctic ocean. 

Jetties — Dikes of wood and stone built beyond the 
mouths of a river to deepen its channel. 

Japan Current (Black Stream) — An ocean current o\ 
the north Pacific from Japan north east to America mod- 
erating the temperature of the western coast of North 
America. 

Juarez — A city in northern Mexico just across the riv- 
er from El Paso. 

Killarney — Lakes in Ireland noted for their beautiful 
scenery. 

Lagoon — Small bays on the seashore shut off by sand- 
bars. 

Lateral Moraines — (See Moraines). 

Latitude — The distance north or south of the equator 
measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. 

Lakes — Depressions in the ground filled with water. 
Fresh water lakes like The Great Lakes, have an outlet to 
the ocean; salt lakes like the Great Salt Lake and Lake 
Balkash in Siberia have no outlet. Lakes are caused by 
glaciers or imperfect drainage. 


— 54 — 


Land and Sea Breezes — A land breeze is a breeze blow- 
ing from the land to the sea at night because the land is 
cooler than the sea. A sea breeze is a breeze blowing from 
the sea to the land in the day time because the warm 
area is then over the land. 

Llanos — The grassy plains of the Orinoco. 

Looming — The phenomenon by which vessels below 
the horizon may be seen by refraction of light. 

Longitude — The distance east or west of the prime 
meridian measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. 

Low Europe — The part of Europe north of a straight 
line joining the mouths of the Danube and Rhine. South 
of this line is High Europe. 

Luray Cavern — A cavern in the Shenandoah valley, , 
Va., caused by the dissolving of the limestone rocK by 
water. 

Luzon — The largest of the Philippine Islands on which 
Manila is situated. 

3raelstroni — A dangerous whirlpool just south of the 
Lofoden Islands, Norway. 

Mathematical Geography treats of the form, size and 
motions of the earth, of the alternation of day and night, 
and the changes of the seasons. 

Meridians — Semi-circumferences of great circles pass- 
ing from pole to pole. 

Mammoth Cave — A large cave in western Kentucky 
due to the solvent powers of underground streams. 

Meat-packing Cities — Chicago, Kansas City, Omaha, 
St. Louis, Cincinnati. 

Mirage — An optical illusion by which the rays of light 
from objects are bent by passing through strata of air of 


— 55 — 


different densities making the objects to appear where 
they are not. 

Monazite — A sand found in Brazil from which mantles 
for Welsbach lights are manufactured. 

Monaco — The smallest state in Europe, situated near 
the southeast corner of France, Area, 8 sq. miles. 

3Ionsoons — Huge land and sea breezes blowing part of 
the year in one direction and part in the opposite direc- 
tion. The Gulf of Guinea, Indian Ocean, and Gulf of Mex- 
ico, are three noted regions. 

Moon — The Satellite of the earth. The four phases of 
the moon are new moon, first quarter, full moon, last 
quarter. During the new and full moon, the earth, sun, 
and moon are in conjunction; that is, in a straight line; 
during the first and last quarters, they are in quadrature, 
that is, they describe a right triangle with the earth at 
the right angle. The moon revolves around the earth from 
west to east in about 27 days. 

Moraines — The earth and debris deposited along the 
side, at the end, or between two moraines, called respec- 
tively lateral, terminal and medial moraines. 

Movements of tlie Ocean — Waves, tides, and currents. 

Nadir — The point directly under foot. 

Neap Tides — The lowest tides occuring at the first and 
last quarters of the moon. 

Nebular Hypothesis, by Laplace — It assumes that the 
sun and the planets were but dust and vapor, at one time, 
and that this matter began to accumulate around a center 
until it was all in one mass called the nebular sun. The 
planets and satellites were cast off, and held in their pres- 
ent relations by inertia, and centrifugal and centripetal 
forces. 


— 56 — 


Ji'omads — People that wander about from place to 
place in search of food, clothing and shelter. 

Jfome — A cape and city of Western Alaska. 

Noon — It is noon at any place when the sun is on the 
meridian of that place. 

Notre Dame — Cathedral near Paris. 

Oases — Are fertile spots in the desert. 

Ocean Currents — (See Currents.) 

Ox-Bow Lakes — Lakes in abandoned river channels. 

Orology — ^The science of mountains and their forma- 
tion. 

Pampas — The grassy plains of the La Plata. 

Parallels — Imaginary lines encircling the earth in the 
same direction as the equator. 

Peat — Beds of decayed vegetable matter, pressed down 
and partly hardened into a substance like coal. It is 
used as a fuel in Ireland. 

Peneplain — Worn-down mountains forming inhabitable 
plains. 

Peninsula — A portion of land nearly surrounded by 
water. In Asia, The Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal make 
India a peninsula; the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea make 
Arabia a peninsula; Yellow Sea and Japan Sea make Korea 
a peninsula. In Europe, Spain separates the Atlantic and 
Mediterranean; Scandinavia, separates the Baltic and 
North Seas. 

♦Perihelion* — ^A point in the earth’s orbit nearest the 

sun. 

Physical Climate — Climate that actually exists. Astro- 
nomical Climate is the climate that would result if the 


— 57 — 


earth’s surface were uniform as to material and altitude. 

Piedmont Eegion — The slope or hilly region between 
the Appalachian Mountains and the tide water region. 

Plateaus — Level tracts of highlands. 

Prairie — A grassy plain. 

Pribilof — Islands Avest of Alaska noted for seals. 

Prime Meridian — The meridian of Greenwich, Eng- 
land, from which other meridians are numbered as a base. 

Promontory — A high rocky cape. 

Political Geography treats of man as an inhabitant 
of the earth and of government, religion and society. 

Physical Geography treats of the land, the water, the 
atmosphere and of vegetable and animal life. 

Eain — Water falling in drops from the clouds. It is 
caused by the cooling of saturated air. 

Races of Men — Caucasian, Ethiopian, Mongolian, Ma- 
lay, and American. 

Rainbow — Arches of prismatic colors caused by refrac- 
tion and the double reflection of light. The colors are, 
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. 

Reefs — Sandbars some distance from shore enclosing 
a lagoon. 

Religious— Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan. 

Refraction — A bending of rays of light. 

River — A large stream of water flowing in a channel. 

Resorts, Winter — Jacksonville, Florida; Los Angeles, 
California; Asheville, North Caroline. Summer — White 
Mountains, N. H. ; Atlantic City, N. J. ; Newport, R. I.; St. 
Augustine, Florida; Denver, Col.; White Sulphur Springs, 


— 58 — 


Greenbrier county, W. Va.; Webster Springs, Webster 
county, W. Va.; Terra Alta, Preston county, W. Va.; Ber- 
keley Springs, Morgan county, W. Va. 

Rivers, North American — The Mississippi flows south 
and empties into the Gulf of Mexico. The St. Lawrence, 
north east into the Gulf of St. Lawrence; the Mackenzie, 
north into the Arctic Ocean; the Youkon, north west into 
Bering Sea; the Colorado, southwest into the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia; the Rio Grande, southeast into the Gulf of Mexico. 
South American — The Orinoco flows northeast, the Ama- 
zon, east, and the La Plata, southeast all into the Atlantic 
Ocean. European — Danube, south east into the Black Sea; 
the Volga, south into the Caspian Sea; the Rhine, north- 
west into the North Sea; the Vistula, north into the Baltic; 
the Dwina, north into the White Sea. Asiatic — The Ob, 
Lena, and Yenisei, north into the Arctic Ocean; the 
Amoor, Hoangho, and Yangste, flow east; the Ganges, In- 
dus, Cambodia, and Bramaputra flow south. African — 
The Nile flows north into the Mediterranean; the Congo, 
west into the Atlantic, and the Zambezi, east into the Mo- 
zambique Channel. 

Rocks — Classes as to origin — Igneous, Aqueous, and 
Metamorphic. As to conditions — Stratified and Non-Strati- 
fied. As to Fossils — Fossiliferous and Non Fossiliferous. 

Sahara — A great desert in northern Africa caused by 
the prevailing winds being deprived of their moisture in. 
crossing the highlands of Central Asia. 

SL Gothard and Simplon — Two tunnels in Switzerland 
piercing the Alps mountains. The latter is 10 miles long 
and the longest tunnel in the world. 

Sargasso Seas — Masses of seaweed collected in the cen- 
ter of the elliptical movement of the currents in the At- 
lantic, the Pacific, and Indian Oceans. 


— 59 — 


Seismic — Pertaining to earthquakes. 

Selvas — The dense forest of the Amazon Valley. 

Shantung Peninsula is in northeastern China and is 
temporarily controlled by Japan as a result of the recent 
world war. 

Ship Canals — Suez Canal connects the Mediterranean 
and Red Seas. Welland Canal connects lakes Erie ami 
Ontario. The Kiel Canal connects the Baltic and North 
seas. The Sault Ste Marie Canal connects lakes Super- 
ior and Huron. The Panama Canal connects the Carrib- 
bean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. It extends from Panama 
City on the Pacific shore to Colon. 

Silt — (See Detritus.) 

Simoon or Samuel — An intensely hot and dry wind 
blowing over Nubia, Persia and parts of Arabia. 

Singapore — ^An English city in the “Straits Settle- 
ments” near the eqautor and at the extreme southern 
point of Asia. It is noted for its tin and spice industries. 
Population, 200,000. 

Sleet — Frozen rain. 

Snow — Rain frozen into flakes. 

Snow'-Iine — The line above which snow never melts. 
It is 16,000 feet high at the equator. 

Soo Canal connects Lake Superior and lake Huron. 

Sault Ste Marie — The river leading from Lake Super- 
ior to Lake Huron. 

Savannahs — Grassy plains. 

Siroccos — A hot and dry wind blowing over Italy. 

Solar — Pertaining to the sun. 


— 60 — 


Solar System — The Sun and all the bodies that re- 
volve around it. 

Solstice — The exact time when the vertical rays of 
the sun reach their most northern or southern limit. It 
occurs June 21 and December 22. 

Spring Tides — The highest tides occurring during the 
new and full moon. 

Steppes — Regions where grassy plains and deserts al- 
ternate. 

St. Helena — An island in the south Atlantic Oecan 
where Napoleon was sent as a prisoner after the battle of 
Waterloo, 1815. 

St. Peters — Cathedral at Rome. 

St. Pauls — Cathedral at London. 

Strait — A narrow passage of water connecting two 
larger bodies of water. 

Straits Settlements — A British possession at che south- 
ern end of Malay peninsula. The extensive deposits of 
tin found in this region supply more than half the tin 
used in the world. 

Sudan — The vast area included between the Sahara 
desert and the tropical forest region of central Africa. 
This region has a wet and a dry season and is inhabited 
by Nomads except in the southern part which is a goon 
farming region. France and Great Britain claim this 
region. 

Talus — A large collection of fragments at the foot of 
a great rock. 

Tides are the rising and falling of the waters of the 
ocean caused by the attraction of the moon and sun. They 
are spring and neap, flood and ebb. 


— 61 — 


Tornado — violent whirlwind. 

Trade ’Winds — Winds that blow regularly from the 
northeast in the northern hemisphere and from the south 
east in the southern hemisphere. Their direction is 
modified by the rotation of the earth. They occur in the 
torrid and warm temperate zones. (See winds.) 

Tree Line — The line along the mountains above which 
timber does not grow. 

Tropics — Parallels 23 degrees on each side of the 
equator. Cancer is north, and Capricorn is south of the 
equator. 

Tsetse — A fly found in central Africa that stings and 
kills cattle. 

Typliooiis — Cyclones about Japan. 

Tundras — Plain in northern Siberia covered most of 
the year with slush ice, and the remainder of the year with 
mosses. 

Talleys, drowned — Valleys that have sunk letting in 
the ocean. 

Vapor — Watery gas. 

Vatican — Residence of the Pope at Rome. 

Virgin Islands — A group of islands just east of Porto 
Rico bought from Denmark by the United States in 1917 
for $25,000,000. Area, 132 sq. mi. Valuable for the fine 
harbor on St. Thomas island. 

Vladivostok on the eastern coast of Siberia, is the 
eastern terminus of the Trans-Siberian railroad. 

Volcano — A mountain with a bowl shaped crater from 
which issue fire, steam, ashes and lava. 


— 62 — 


"Water — Pure water is colorless, odorless and taste- 
less. It reaches its maximum density at a temperature of 
30.2 degrees F. 

Wadies — Dry river beds. 

Watershed — The line that divides one river system 
from another. 

Waves — ^Undulations in the water caused by the im- 
pact of the wind. 

Weather — The condition of the atmosphere. 

Weathering — The processes by which rock wastes are 
produced. 

Westminster Abbey — A church in London in which the 
sovereigns of England are coronated. In this church are 
buried England’s sovereigns and great poets. 

Winds — Currents of air in motion, caused by the sun’s 
heat. Winds are divided into three classes: constant, 

periodical, and variable. 

The atmosphere extends, perhaps 200 miles above 
the earth, giving plenty of room for winds one above the 
other blowing in opposite directions. As the atmosphere 
near the equator becomes heated, it expands, gets lighter, 
and ascends to high regions. This belt is about eight 
degrees wide and follows the heat equator north of the 
mathematical equator in our summer season, and grad- 
ually follows the sun into the southern latitudes in the 
winter. This shifting belt is called the Zone of Calms. 
The ascending currents of air in this zone become cooled, 
causing almost constant rains. These ascending currents 
make room for the air which is north and south of the 
zone of calms and which blows constantly from horse 
latitudes toward the equator. This belt of winds is called 


— 63 — 


the Trade Winds. The ascending currents are forced 
northeast and southeast to the horse latitudes where by 
compression and cooling, they gradually settle in belts 
known as the calms of Cancer and the calms of Capricorn. 
These upper currents of air blowing in opposite direction 
to the trade winds are called Antitrade Winds. The anti- 
trade winds after settling, move on toward the northeast 
and, in the northern part of the United States and in 
Canada become the prevailing westerlies. The trade winds 
blow in the same direction as cold ocean currents flow 
and for the same reason, while the antitrades blow in the 
same direction as the warm ocean currents flow and for 
the same reason. (See currents). Trade winds are sur- 
face currents originating at horse latitudes and blow to 
the equatorial Zone of Calms. The Antitrades originate 
at the equatorial Zone of Calms and blow northeast and 
southeast as upper return currents to horse latitudes 
where they settle and continue their northeast and south- 
east directions as surface currents. Colder counter cur- 
rents blow above the antitrades after they settle. 

Yellowstone National Park is in the north western 
corner of Wyoming. 

Tosemite River is in California. It has the highest 
falls in the \vorld. 

Zones — Belts encircling the earth having nearly the 
same general climatic conditions. The torrid zone is be- 
tv/een the tropic of cancer and the tropic of capricorn and 
is 47 degrees wide. The temperate zones are between the 
tropics and polar circles and are each 90 — (23i-l-23i), 
or 43 degrees wide. If the earth were inclined 25 degrees 
instead of 23 degrees the temperate zone would be 90 — 
(25+25), or 40 degrees wide. The width of the torrid zone 
is twice the inclination of the earth’s axis or two times 
23^4 degrees, or 47 degrees. The width of the temperate 


— 64 — 


zones is 90 degrees minus twice the inclination of the 
earth’s axis from a perpendicular to the plane of the 
ecliptic. The width of the frigid zone is necessarily the 
same as the degree of inclination of the earth’s axis. The 
isothermal lines, 72 degrees and 32 degrees, bound the 
physical zones, while the tropics and polar circles bound 
the mathematical zones. 

Zenith — The point in the heavens dierctly overhead. 




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